Legitimacy
'right to govern' or 'make laws'
enforced and obeyed by people
refers to right of an individual or body to be recognised and to have the right to exercise power.
In democratic countries, conveyed by election.
FOR EXAMPLE : previous 2010 coalition lack legitimacy!
No electoral mandate
Legitimacy closely related to the concept of authority.
Authority, like legitimacy, means the 'right to exercise power'. It is usually derive from three possible sources:
tradition - because power has been exercised for a long time and has been accepted for many years
election - power may be exercised if an individual or party has been elected.
charisma - a person develops authority through the force of their personality and their ability to inspire a following.
What is consent and how can it be recognised?
refers to evidence that the people consent to be governed in particular way/or by a particular government. Consent can be coffered in these ways:
By free elections
By good turnouts in free elections
By a distinct lack of popular dissent
By clear demonstrations of support for government
By an explicit referendum (also known as a plebiscite) to adopt a particular constitution
Citizenship
-enjoyment of certain rights
FOR EXAMPLE - right to vote, to stand for office, fair trial if accused of crime, to be treated equally by the law and to be guaranteed justice.
-enjoyment of civil liberties
FOR EXAMPLE - freedom of expression, of movement, of thought and association.
-certain duties or obligations
FOR EXAMPLE - to obey the law, to pay taxes, possibly to defend the country.
active citizenship
FOR EXAMPLE - volunteering for charity work, environmental protection, being politically active and socially responsible.
Democracy
FEATURES;
peaceful transition of power form one government to the next
there are free and fair regular elections
people have open access to independent information, including free press and other media
government should be accountable to the people and representative institutions
high degree of freedom for individuals and groups
different political ideologies and beliefs are tolerated
the rule of law applies - all are equal under the law
government operates in the broad interests of the people
FOR EXAMPLE: UK,USA,FRANCE
Direct democracy?
people directly involved in the political process whereby they themselves make decisions, usually referendums.
people are directly consulted on political decisions - this is also known as consultative democracy
people may take the initiative in creating political change (i.e. popular action provokes a political decision).
FOR EXAMPLE: referendums UK on AV in MAY 2011), initiatives (USA and Switzerland), public consultations (English local government)
Representative democracy?
people elect representatives
people do not make most decisions themselves but delegate that power to their representatives
political parties that represent different political views
Representation
Institution
MPs
represent the interest of their constituency and of constituents.
they tend to represent their party's policies.
they may see themselves as representing the public interest.
some MPs represent sectional or promotional pressure groups.
HOCs
the house exists to represent the national interest in case it conflicts with government policy
it is also the guardian of the government's mandate on behalf of the people
the house may represent the interests off minorities against the majority government
HOLs
represent minorities, and sectional and promotional groups.
also safeguards the national interest in case there is a conflict with the will of the Commons.
Political parties
most British parties claim they represent the national interest
parties may also single out sections of the community that they particularly represent, such as the working class, the poor or minorities
Pressure groups
nationalist parties represent the UK's national minorities
pressure groups represent sections of the community, such as occupational groups or groups that seek to promote a specific cause.
Why the referendum was necessary
to achieve popular consent to a constitutional change
EXAMPLE : devolution to Scotland in 1997
OUTCOME: large majority in favour of devolution
government itself was divided on the issue
EXAMPLE: vote on the introduction on the alternative vote in 2011. the coalition partners disagreed on this issue
OUTCOME: a large majority rejected AV
it was necessary to achieve widespread consent for a specific reason
EXAMPLE: the 1998 referendum to approve the Good Friday
Agreement, designed to bring peace and power to Northern Ireland
OUTCOME: a resounding 'yes' vote on a large turnout
to entrench an important constitutional change, preventing it from being overturned by a future parliament
EXAMPLE: all the devolution referendums in 1997
OUTCOME: All resulted in a 'Yes' vote
People participation
-voting in elections
-joining political parties
-actively engaging in political campaigns
-joining a pressure group
-standing for electoral office
QUESTIONS;-
1 Democracy and political participation
Part (a) questions
1 Distinguish between direct and representative democracy.
5 How can institutions be represenatitive?
9 To what extent can the UK be said to be a liberal democracy? Include these points in favour of the argument that the UK is a liberal democracy:
Elections
3 Elections
Part (a) questions
1 Explain two functions of elections. Choose two functions from the following:
Part (b) questions
5 Why has first-past-the-post been criticised as an electoral system? Include the following criticisms:
Part (c) questions
9 Assess the arguments for the introduction of proportional representation for UK general elections ? Include these arguments with some evaluation:
Part (a) questions
1 Distinguish between sectional and promotional pressure groups. Sectional groups represent a specific section of society:
8 Why can it be difficult to distinguish between parties and pressure groups? Include these key points, with examples where appropriate:
11 How has the internet affected pressure group activity? Include the following examples:
12 To what extent do pressure groups enhance democracy? Ways in which they enhance democracy include:
14 How and why have pressure group methods changed in recent years? Examples of change and the reasons for change include:
'right to govern' or 'make laws'
enforced and obeyed by people
refers to right of an individual or body to be recognised and to have the right to exercise power.
In democratic countries, conveyed by election.
FOR EXAMPLE : previous 2010 coalition lack legitimacy!
No electoral mandate
Legitimacy closely related to the concept of authority.
Authority, like legitimacy, means the 'right to exercise power'. It is usually derive from three possible sources:
tradition - because power has been exercised for a long time and has been accepted for many years
election - power may be exercised if an individual or party has been elected.
charisma - a person develops authority through the force of their personality and their ability to inspire a following.
What is consent and how can it be recognised?
refers to evidence that the people consent to be governed in particular way/or by a particular government. Consent can be coffered in these ways:
By free elections
By good turnouts in free elections
By a distinct lack of popular dissent
By clear demonstrations of support for government
By an explicit referendum (also known as a plebiscite) to adopt a particular constitution
Citizenship
-enjoyment of certain rights
FOR EXAMPLE - right to vote, to stand for office, fair trial if accused of crime, to be treated equally by the law and to be guaranteed justice.
-enjoyment of civil liberties
FOR EXAMPLE - freedom of expression, of movement, of thought and association.
-certain duties or obligations
FOR EXAMPLE - to obey the law, to pay taxes, possibly to defend the country.
active citizenship
FOR EXAMPLE - volunteering for charity work, environmental protection, being politically active and socially responsible.
Democracy
FEATURES;
peaceful transition of power form one government to the next
there are free and fair regular elections
people have open access to independent information, including free press and other media
government should be accountable to the people and representative institutions
high degree of freedom for individuals and groups
different political ideologies and beliefs are tolerated
the rule of law applies - all are equal under the law
government operates in the broad interests of the people
FOR EXAMPLE: UK,USA,FRANCE
Direct democracy?
people directly involved in the political process whereby they themselves make decisions, usually referendums.
people are directly consulted on political decisions - this is also known as consultative democracy
people may take the initiative in creating political change (i.e. popular action provokes a political decision).
FOR EXAMPLE: referendums UK on AV in MAY 2011), initiatives (USA and Switzerland), public consultations (English local government)
Representative democracy?
people elect representatives
people do not make most decisions themselves but delegate that power to their representatives
political parties that represent different political views
Representation
Institution
MPs
represent the interest of their constituency and of constituents.
they tend to represent their party's policies.
they may see themselves as representing the public interest.
some MPs represent sectional or promotional pressure groups.
HOCs
the house exists to represent the national interest in case it conflicts with government policy
it is also the guardian of the government's mandate on behalf of the people
the house may represent the interests off minorities against the majority government
HOLs
represent minorities, and sectional and promotional groups.
also safeguards the national interest in case there is a conflict with the will of the Commons.
Political parties
most British parties claim they represent the national interest
parties may also single out sections of the community that they particularly represent, such as the working class, the poor or minorities
Pressure groups
nationalist parties represent the UK's national minorities
pressure groups represent sections of the community, such as occupational groups or groups that seek to promote a specific cause.
Why the referendum was necessary
to achieve popular consent to a constitutional change
EXAMPLE : devolution to Scotland in 1997
OUTCOME: large majority in favour of devolution
government itself was divided on the issue
EXAMPLE: vote on the introduction on the alternative vote in 2011. the coalition partners disagreed on this issue
OUTCOME: a large majority rejected AV
it was necessary to achieve widespread consent for a specific reason
EXAMPLE: the 1998 referendum to approve the Good Friday
Agreement, designed to bring peace and power to Northern Ireland
OUTCOME: a resounding 'yes' vote on a large turnout
to entrench an important constitutional change, preventing it from being overturned by a future parliament
EXAMPLE: all the devolution referendums in 1997
OUTCOME: All resulted in a 'Yes' vote
People participation
-voting in elections
-joining political parties
-actively engaging in political campaigns
-joining a pressure group
-standing for electoral office
QUESTIONS;-
1 Democracy and political participation
Part (a) questions
1 Distinguish between direct and representative democracy.
- Give a brief definition of democracy: government where people make decisions or are consulted.
- Elaborate on this definition: there is direct democracy, where people make decisions, or representative democracy where representatives are elected by free elections, and make decisions on behalf of people. Also it implies that government is accountable to the people. Possibly add that there are independent sources of information.
- Add an example such as the USA or UK.
- Through MPs elected in constituencies.
- Through governments which are elected at general elections.
- By parliament as a whole that represents the national interest or sectional interests.
- By political parties.
- By pressure groups.
- Give a general definition: it is a political system where power is dispersed and where a wide variety of groups, associations and beliefs are allowed to flourish.
- Elaborate a little: pluralism implies a multiparty system and freedom for groups to campaign and attempt to influence government. It also implies that power is not concentrated in a few hands, but individuals and other groups may have some influence and/or power.
- A good example of pluralist democracy is the USA.
- The 1975 vote on British membership of the European Community. The circumstances was that the government itself was split. This would resolve the internal problem.
- 1997 votes on Scottish and Welsh devolution. The circumstances were that the consent of the people is essential if there is to be a change in the system of government. The votes also headed off opposition from the Conservative Party.
- The 2011 referendum on AV. This was held as it was an important constitutional change. It had been in all three parties’ manifestos and the vote was designed to resolve the argument about PR.
- The 1998 Northern Ireland vote on the Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement. This was needed to unite a divided community around a new political settlement.
5 How can institutions be represenatitive?
- The nature of constituency representation.
- The ways in which parties claim to represent different beliefs and interests.
- The way parliament represents constituencies, sections and the national interest.
- The ways in which the government as a whole represents the national interest.
- The operation of pressure groups that represent both causes and sections of the community
- They are a pure form of democracy. However, people may not understand the issues well enough and may be over-emotional.
- Government by consent is essential, but too many referendums may undermine representative institutions.
- People will respect decisions made by referendum, though this may be tenuous if there is a low turnout or a very close outcome.
- They can be useful when government itself is divided, though governments perhaps should be able to achieve compromises.
- They can unite a divided community, though this is a problem if the result is close.
- Note also the problems that issues are complex and referendums represent the tyranny of the majority.
- Reduce the voting age to 16, but can all 16 year olds understand the issues?
- Compulsory voting, but this offends individual liberty and may force the politically ignorant to vote.
- Internet participation will open up politics, but is open to corruption and debates may be manipulated.
- Making it easier to vote, though this may cause security problems and increase opportunities for electoral manipulation.
- Citizenship education and ‘Big Society’ ideas. This is expensive in some cases and has proved difficult to promote.
- Explain the nature of elections.
- Explain how parties enhance democracy and are free to form and operate.
- Explain that pressure groups flourish, have large memberships and are allowed, on the whole, to operate freely.
- Explain the free nature of the media.
- Explain the ways in which elected representatives are made accountable to the people and to parliament.
- Explain the regular use of referendums.
9 To what extent can the UK be said to be a liberal democracy? Include these points in favour of the argument that the UK is a liberal democracy:
- Free regular elections.
- Free media.
- Rights are protected in law.
- The judiciary is independent.
- Government is accountable to parliament.
- Pressure groups are free to campaign and operate.
- Elections are not fair owing to the electoral system.
- Undemocratic institutions such as the House of Lords.
- Rights are not fully protected because of the sovereignty of parliament.
- There is no codified, entrenched constitution so power distribution is undefined.
- Power can be said to be too centralised
- When government itself is divided on an issue. Examples: 1975 European Community referendum, AV referendum in 2011.
- When a key constitution change is proposed and the change needs to be entrenched and consented to. Examples: 1997 votes in Scottish and Welsh devolution.
- When a divided community needs to be united round a new political settlement. Example: 1998 referendum on the Northern Ireland Belfast (Good Friday ) Agreement.
- When government is uncertain whether a change will have popular consent. Examples: 1998 vote on whether London should have an elected mayor, the 2011 AV referendum.
- There is too much power in the hands of executive government.
- Power is too centralised
- Rights are inadequately protected.
- Political participation is falling in terms of voting and party membership.
- The persistence of undemocratic institutions such as the House of Lords.
- Problems with the unfairness of the electoral system.
- By strengthening both houses of parliament, possibly with a constitution to balance power between the executive and legislature.
- By granting more devolution to the national regions, strengthening powers of local government.
- By introducing a new Bill of Rights, binding on parliament and government.
- By increasing participation (see question 7 above)
- By reforming the House of Lords, making it elected.
- By reforming the electoral system, probably introducing PR.
- Representatives can mediate between the claims of different groups. Direct democracy represents only the will of the majority. Example: parties and parliament.
- Representatives are able to contemplate and examine complex issues, often consulting experts and interested parties. Example: government and parliament
- Representatives are more likely to consider issues rationally, while the general populace may react emotionally. Example: elected representatives and pressure groups.
- Representatives are less likely to be unduly influenced by the media. Example: Parliament.
- Many questions cannot be reduced to a yes/no answer. Representatives can develop more sensitive responses to issues. Example: Britain’s relationship to the EU.
Elections
3 Elections
Part (a) questions
1 Explain two functions of elections. Choose two functions from the following:
- To make the existing government accountable.
- To grant a mandate to the winning party or coalition.
- To elect representatives, notably MPs.
- To allow the electorate to choose between competing political programmes.
- To inform the electorate about key political issues.
- Referendums concern a single question with a yes/no answer; elections are more complex, involving the full range of political issues.
- Referendums occur sporadically whereas elections happen either in fixed terms or when called by government at regular intervals.
- Elections exist to return representatives, whereas referendums are about a single political question.
- Elections are part of representative democracy, whereas referendums are an aspect of direct democracy.
- It is a principle which is a key aspect of representative democracy.
- It is based on the parties’ election manifestos.
- When a party wins the election, it has been granted a mandate to implement all aspects of its election manifesto.
- It also implies that the party which wins the election has a mandate to implement any policy or action which it considers to be in the national interest (the ‘doctor’s mandate’).
Part (b) questions
5 Why has first-past-the-post been criticised as an electoral system? Include the following criticisms:
- It enables large numbers of MPs to be elected without winning an absolute majority in a constituency.
- It almost inevitably means that the winning party is elected without winning a majority of the popular vote.
- It distorts the level of support for the parties, discriminating against some parties and in favour of others.
- It makes votes of unequal value because so many seats are safe seats and votes are wasted.
- It reduces the choices available to voters
- The electoral system is a way of converting votes into seats.
- Proportional representation (PR) is a description of any system that tends to apportion seats in proportion to votes cast.
- STV, list systems and AMS are examples.
- PR systems tend to create at least a three-party system, but often multiparty systems.
- Examples are Germany, Italy, Ireland and Northern Ireland.
- This leads typically to coalition government or minority governments.
- STV, as used in Northern Ireland, gives rise to a multiparty system. It also results
in small parties and independents being elected. Voters have more choice and can discriminate between candidates of the same party. There are multi-member constituencies. Overall, the result tends to be proportional to the total votes cast.
In Northern Ireland, STV leads to power sharing. In Ireland, it leads to coalition government. - With the list system, commonly used in Europe, the result tends to be very proportional to the votes cast for each party. It leads to multiparty systems and therefore coalition governments. Votes are of equal value. Small parties tend to do relatively well.
- AMS is a hybrid system which tends to produce a proportional result. It helps small parties, though not very small ones. Voters have two votes each. It produces a two-tier system of representation with some constituency MPs and some elected from the lists. It tends to produce coalition government or minority government.
- In both countries there was a fear that the Labour Party might dominate totally under first past the post.
- PR was designed to give nationalist parties a fair chance of representation.
- Both Wales and Scotland have more pluralist political cultures that England, so the electoral system can reflect this.
- It was a demand made by the Liberal Democrats and Nationalists when devolution was being negotiated.
Part (c) questions
9 Assess the arguments for the introduction of proportional representation for UK general elections ? Include these arguments with some evaluation:
- Proportional representation (PR) will produce a more proportional overall result, however it will make it unlikely that a single, decisive party government will be elected.
- It will be less unfair to some parties and will give less advantage to others. However, it may lead to coalition government which may be seen as weaker.
- PR is fairer to voters and means less wasted votes. However, the electorate may find first past the post (FPTP) easier to understand.
- Some PR systems make votes of equal value, but my threaten the strong relationship under FPTP of the MP and the constituency.
- It will improve the representation of smaller parties. However, this may cause political instability and it is possible that some extremist parties may win seats and gain publicity.
- It would bring the UK into line with the most other modern European democracies, though this is no guarantee that it would gain public support.
- They help to make government accountable.
- They educate the electorate about political issues.
- The grant a democratic mandate to the incoming government.
- They give the electorate a democratic choice between political programmes.
- They provide representatives for different regions and localities.
- First past the post can be seen as unfair, distorting representation.
- Elections grant a mandate to the government for all its policies, while the electorate may support some but oppose other policies.
- Between elections government are inadequately accountable.
- The election campaigns may distort issues in the parties’ attempts to attract votes.
- It is a simple system which the electorate finds easy to understand. However, the electorates of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have accepted alternatives without major problems.
- It tends to produce single party governments with a decisive majority. However, this did not occur in May 2010. In addition, some argue that such single party majorities are elective dictatorships and coalitions are more moderate.
- It creates a strong bond between a constituency and its MP, though many MPs are elected on a minority of the popular vote.
- It strengthens the principle of the mandate when a single party wins outright. However, there was some confusion in 2010 and the doctrine of the mandate is often seen as flawed, giving too much authority to the winning party.
- It is normally clear who has won the election (though not in 2010).
- It means many MPs are elected without winning an overall majority in their constituency.
- It distorts the result, favouring some parties and discriminating against others.
- It tends to produce governments who win with as little as 35% of the popular vote.
- It makes many votes of no value, especially in safe seats.
- It prevents smaller parties winning representation.
- It denies the voters choice over whom is elected.
- It produces a two-party system that does not reflect Britain’s pluralist political culture.
- It grants excessive power to the winning party, except when there is a rare coalition, as in 2010.
Part (a) questions
1 Distinguish between sectional and promotional pressure groups. Sectional groups represent a specific section of society:
- They are self-interested, pursuing the interests of their members and interest group rather than society as a whole.
- They tend to be insiders, though not always.
- A good example is Age UK
- They often do not have a membership.
- They are interested in the welfare of society as a whole.
- They are more likely to be outsiders.
- A good example is Friends of the Earth.
- They tend to act more responsibly.
- Most, but not all, are sectional groups.
- They tend to use consultation and negotiation as their main campaign method.
- A good example is the National Farmers’ Union.
- They mainly concentrate on mobilising public opinion.
- They tend to use direct action.
- Sometimes they use civil disobedience.
- They are more likely to be cause or issue groups.
- A good example is Greenpeace.
- Parties seek governmental power while pressure groups only seek influence.
- Pressure groups have narrow interests while parties develop policy across all government business.
- Parties have to make themselves accountable for what they do as they might be in power, whereas pressure groups do not have to be accountable.
- Parties tend to have more formal organisations and hierarchies than pressure groups.
- They may give evidence to parliamentary select or legislative committees.
- They will lobby ministers, sometimes using professional lobbyists.
- They may have seats on official policy committees and use their influence there.
- They may operate inside political parties (notably trade unions).
- Campaigns of civil disobedience (Greenpeace).
- Mass demonstrations (Stop the War coalition).
- Permanent camps etc. (Occupy campaign).
- Internet campaigns and petitions (Taxpayers Alliance).
- Stunts of various kinds (Fathers4Justice).
- these beliefs and lifestyles are also tolerated and protected in law.
- there is a multiparty system.
- many pressure groups are allowed to flourish.
- power in society and the political system is widely dispersed.
- those with wealth and economic power have the greatest influence.
- society is less democratic because power is not in the hands of the mass of the people.
- different economic, business, military, social and political elites combine to control society and politics.
8 Why can it be difficult to distinguish between parties and pressure groups? Include these key points, with examples where appropriate:
- Some pressure groups, such as unions and business groups, have wide concerns and develop policy across a wide variety of government business, as parties do.
- Some pressure groups, such as anti-abortion campaigners, put up candidates for election as parties do.
- Some pressure groups, such as unions, operate within parties.
- There are party factions, such as Conservative Way Forward (Thatcherite) that campaign similarly to pressure groups.
- Some pressure groups turn into parties, such as UKIP.
- Increasing use of the internet, including e-petitions.
- Social media and networking enable groups to organise demonstrations quickly and on a large scale.
- Utilising the media by mounting major stunts and demonstrations, such as the Occupy campaign.
- Since the passing of the Human Rights and Freedom of Information Acts, groups increasingly use the law courts to pursue the interests of their members.
- Increasing use of the European courts to pursue interests.
- Increasing practice of giving evidence to parliamentary committees.
11 How has the internet affected pressure group activity? Include the following examples:
- It is possible to organise e-petitions to enforce parliamentary debates (e.g. UK membership of the EU).
- It is possible to organise campaigns and demonstrations effectively and quickly
(e.g. Occupy). - The internet has increased public awareness of issues (e.g. the environment).
- It is easier to create new pressure groups (e.g. the Taxpayers’ Alliance).
- Many pressure groups now campaign effectively through social networks.
- There is some interaction on the internet between government, parliament, MPs and pressure group representatives.
12 To what extent do pressure groups enhance democracy? Ways in which they enhance democracy include:
- They are a channel of communication between government and the governed.
- They educate and inform the public on important issues.
- They help to disperse power more widely.
- They can inform the government about public opinion.
- They protect minority interests.
- They are key vehicles of representation.
- They have largely replaced declining parties in policy influence.
- Some wealthy, large pressure groups may enjoy excessive influence.
- Campaigns of civil disobedience may be undemocratic.
- Pressure groups are not democratically accountable.
- Insiders may exert excessive influence.
- Financial resources — some have more.
- Size of membership.
- Degree of organisation
- Their ability to use the internet effectively.
- Do they hold a ‘strategic’ place in society?
- Do they enjoy widespread public support?
- Is the government in sympathy with their aims?
- What is the strength of opposition opinion?
- Do they have effective insider status?
14 How and why have pressure group methods changed in recent years? Examples of change and the reasons for change include:
- The internet is a key factor (see question 9 above). Government itself is more sensitive to the internet and social networking.
- The decline of party influence has led pressure groups to develop mass memberships.
- The increasing importance of parliamentary committees.
- The increasing importance of the courts to protect and further group interests, largely because of the Human Rights and Freedom of Information Acts.
- The growing importance of media coverage which has enabled the increased use of mass demonstrations, camps, stunts etc. Also the greater use of celebrities.
- The growing importance of the EU has led groups to operate in Brussels, etc. to a greater extent.
- The internet has provided a means to organise direct action quickly and effectively.
- The same is true of social networking.
- The growing importance of media influence.
- The decline in the importance of parties has led to mass membership of, and support for, pressure groups.
- Mobilisation of public opinion is seen as effective as against influencing parties.
- The failure of many ‘insider’ methods has led groups to resort to direct action.
- They have developed mass memberships.
- Some groups have developed a large degree of influence.
- Governments are increasingly sensitive to large demonstrations of public opinion.
- Even small groups can exert influence if they are organised and can use the internet effectively.
- Sections of the community are increasingly protected by use of the courts (under the Human Rights and Freedom of Information Acts)
- Minority groups can also effectively use European institutions.
- Some pressure groups have great wealth and economic power and can exert influence.
- Insider groups can exert influence ‘behind closed doors’.
- Some strategically important groups such as unions, banks and businesses can place large amounts of power and influence in a few hands.
- Some pressure groups are not internally democratic and some concentrate influence at the top.